Evaluation of Multimedia App, “Epic!”

Evaluation of Multimedia App – “Epic!”

Epic! is a teacher, student and parent friendly digital reading application designed for readers under the age of twelve. Teachers working with this program have the ability to track their students’ reading progress, provide at home reading assignments, and tailor reading to the student’s reading level. Teacher salaries do not support the investment of fancy technology and expensive applications; therefore, Epic! being offered as a free application makes it accessible for any educator with access to a school laptop or iPad cart. In Chien-Chuan Ko, Chun-Han Chiang, Yun-Lung Lin and Ming-Chung Chen’s article, “An Individualized e-Reading System Developed Based on Multi-Representations Approach,” (2011) they state that many “disabilities prevent students from meeting the challenge of the general curriculum” (p.88). This evaluation aims to prove that Epic! can be used to break down barriers for most students and provide easy and effective access to learning. Throughout our evaluation, we will identify how this application utilizes principles of multimedia learning, several reviews based on the application’s success in classroom situations, research supporting the use of Epic! in multimedia learning and how we plan to use this application in our future teaching practices. 

Epic!’s vast content includes many of the multimedia learning principles such as multimedia, signalling, segmenting and guided discovery. The multimedia learning principle is where “people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone” (McCue, 2020). Epic contains countless picture books for children to enhance their knowledge and understanding as they read. The signalling principle is where “people learn better when cues are added that highlight the key information and its organization” (McCue, 2020). There is a collection of Read-to-Me books that offer a follow-along word highlighting feature. This helps students to focus on each spoken word and to make connections between written words and their corresponding pronunciation. The segmenting principle is where “people learn better when a multimedia message is presented in learner-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit” (McCue, 2020). Readers can work through books at their own pace and can choose to complete quizzes on certain topics to test their knowledge or after they read a book to develop their comprehension. The acts of listening to read-alouds, testing for comprehension, discussing books with others and reading authentic literature “are not only engaging aspects of literature-based classrooms across grade levels, but also essential aspects of learning to read and respond to literature in the early grades and beyond” (Möller, 2015, p. 55). Lastly, the guided discovery principle is where “people learn better when guidance is incorporated into discovery-based multimedia environments” (McCue, 2020). Although this app is very open and learner-centered, teachers can create multiple-choice quizzes and book collections from the various books on the app to assign to their students in order to guide them in a certain direction in order to enrich their learning process. 

The reviews and responses regarding Epic! are overwhelmingly positive. This application contains over 35000 different types of books such as audio books, educational videos and quizzes. The app is to be user friendly, accessible and adaptable for each student (Chandler, 2017). A local kindergarten teacher stated that she has found Epic! to be the best way to engage her students in reading and to introduce them to a wide variety of material that can interest each child (Sarah Fiorentino, personal communication, June 24, 2020). Also, she appreciates how this application allows for individual exploration of books for her young readers as well as whole-class lesson options to practice various early reading skills (Sarah Fiorentino, personal communication, June 24, 2020). Variety and books that will interest each learner were common themes throughout numerous reviews as well as the ability to move towards a paperless classroom (Chandler, 2017). Teachers can also create assignments and use Epic! as an assessment tool (Michelle, 2019). Another teacher said that Epic! has increased the reading motivation of all her grade 3 students because of the reading badges they can earn. She stated that her students “love earning badges, and so does she, because the more time reading leads to better fluency and comprehension” (Devlin Coleman, personal communication, June 24, 2020). There is also an online guide available for educators “which has allowed for so many interactive lessons that students love” (Devlin Coleman, personal communication, June 24, 2020). 

With classrooms continuing to focus on individualized learning and the increasing amount of technology available, applications such as Epic! ensure that teachers have a resource that can be effectively used to promote literacy in elementary classrooms. There have been many studies done on the effectiveness of eBooks and digital reading on tablets with beginning and emerging readers. Frequently, children are more engaged and are able to find enjoyment using apps similar to Epic!. Interactive elements within the application, such as quizzes and videos, can increase children’s autonomy as a reader and enjoyment of activities (Aliagas and Margallo, 2017). Additionally, eBooks and reading using a digital format was found to boost engagement and motivation to read for pleasure (Galebandi and Noorhidawati, 2019).

 

Epic! is a valuable resource that we will be using in our future teaching practices. This application has multiple features that can help enhance classroom experiences for both the teacher and the student. There are many ways to use Epic! in the classroom. Below we have attached a link to a Prezi where we share several ways in which we plan to use this application in the future.

https://prezi.com/view/0Wkfx75hhTybUEXT4ell/ 

Through research on the Epic! application, we have discovered the diverse content developed to support teachers and students. Epic allows teachers to create individualized reading plans for students, provide multiple copies of the same picture books and create a larger library for students’ research projects. Additionally, this application is easily accessible and engaging for all students. Ko, Chiang, et al. (2011) state that “reading skill is essential to a successful learning activity” (p. 88). As strong believers in this statement, we conclude that Epic! will support our future students in becoming more effective and comprehensive readers. By enhancing and developing our students’ reading skills, they will be able to better contribute and engage in classroom reading activities and therefore, gaining more knowledge from reading activities. 

References

Aliagas, C., & Margallo, A. M. (2017). Children’s responses to the interactivity of storybook apps in family shared reading events involving the iPad. Literacy, 51(1), 44-52. doi:10.1111/lit.12089

Chandler, A. (2017, July 15). Smart Review- An Epic! Review from a teacher and a parent. Retrieved from https://www.gettingsmart.com/2017/07/getting-smart-review-an-epic-review-from-a-teacher-and-parent/

Ghalebandi, S. G., & Noorhidawati, A. (2019). Engaging children with pleasure reading: The E-reading experience. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56(8), 1213-1237. doi:10.1177/0735633117738716

Ko, C.-C., Chiang, C.-H., Lin, Y.-L., & Chen, M.-C. (2011). An Individualized e-Reading System Developed Based on Multi-Representations Approach. Educational Technology & Society, 14 (4), 88–98.

Learning at the Primary Pond. 2019. Five Ways To Use Epic! In The Classroom (That You May Not Have Thought Of!) – Learning At The Primary Pond. [online] Available at: <https://learningattheprimarypond.com/blog/epic-for-teachers/> [Accessed 25 June 2020].

McCue, R. (2020). Principles of Multimedia Learning—A summary. Google Docs. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1TGVFG_iCc3iSz3aX3j8UC-YC63V__6tKFJQ4FtAsH4o/edit?usp=sharing&usp=embed_facebook

Michelle, E. (2019, February 25). Common Sense Education- Teacher Review for Epic! Kids books and Videos. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/document/d/1jewk2MM8scHUEW08dFDXqMxqeWh3vYtItFVlzSxLqxw/edit 

Möller, K. J. (2015). Apps in literature-based classroom instruction: Integrating reading and response through traditional and digital media. Journal of Children’s Literature, 41(1), 54. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/docview/1683975342?pq-origsite=summon

Wohlwend, K. (2017). The case of the iPad: Mobile literacies in education. Singapore: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4364-2

Guided Discovery Learning Principle

Chapter fifteen of “The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning” by Richard Mayer focuses on the Guided Discovery Learning Principle in Multimedia Learning. This principle states that people learn better when guidance is incorporated into discovery-based multimedia environments. Given the fact that education and instruction can be presented in many different ways, it is up to educators to decide which method they use in their own teaching practice. This chapter explains that “too little guidance causes the student to fail, whereas too much guidance challenges the self-directed nature of the discovery learning process” (Jong & Lazonder, 2014, p. 382). This adds credibility to the argument that guidance is beneficial throughout the learning process, however, the amount of guidance provided to achieve the best learning outcomes may depend on multiple variables.

In this chapter, Ton de Jong and Ard Lazonder discuss how discovery instructional approaches result in generating deeper learning than if the information was simply given to students. Although various teaching styles can be effective under certain circumstances, Jong and Lazonder highlight the effectiveness of science education and how it “should engage students in active investigation and experimentation so as to increase and sustain their motivation” (Jong & Lazonder, 2014, p. 372). They continue to explain how unguided discovery learning is generally ineffective due to the challenges students face with the lack of direction they are given and how students will learn more if they are sufficiently guided. They then detail the different types of guidance such as process constraints, performance dashboard, prompts, heuristics, scaffolds and direct presentation of information.  Process constraints “[restrict] the number of options students need to consider” (Jong & Lazonder, 2014, p. 375) in order to make the learning process more manageable. This type of guidance is best used when students lack the knowledge of how to apply the inquiry process. Once sufficient experience is gained, the constraints can be loosened. Performance dashboards give students a “real-time progress report of their discovery learning process” (Jong & Lazonder, 2014, p. 375). They help students learn about the quality of their work and are best used with students that know how to follow up on feedback. Prompts remind students of certain tasks to be completed throughout their learning process and are given to students who may not be able to complete tasks independently. More detailed prompts have proven to be more effective than less detailed prompts. Heuristics provide students with suggestions (that are even more detailed than prompts) for how to go about conducting their learning process. They are best used when students are unsure about when or how to conduct the actions necessary to carry out their learning process. Scaffolds help guide students by supplying them with “components of the process and thus structure the process” (Jong & Lazonder, 2014, p. 377). They are best used when the learning process is too challenging for students. Lastly, direct presentation of information can be given throughout the learning process and is most effective when students are unable to individually find information or their prior knowledge is limited. This allows students to explore information deeper in the discovery environment. Jong and Lazonder emphasize how studies have proven guided discovery learning to be more effective than direct instruction and unguided instruction.  They also state the importance of giving the suitable amount of guidance to students. This depends on a student’s knowledge and skills and is something that needs to be monitored in order to support their evolving needs. The authors conclude this chapter by stating how further “research should focus on the design of well-balanced learning environments that, if applicable, combine different types of guidance at different levels of specificity” (Jong & Lazonder, 2014, p. 385) and how the creation of these environments will help to encourage the use of scientific discovery learning in classrooms.

The authors prove that there are many advantages when guided discovery principles are implemented into multimedia learning throughout chapter fifteen of “The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning.” The question still stands, however, should we combine different methods of guidance together? Jong and Lazonder’s chapter concluded conflicting findings. Through one study, implementing a variety of methods was found to enhance the learning outcomes of students; on the other hand, another study found it was extremely detrimental to the students’ learning. Mayer acknowledges in his paper the possibility of the negative findings being related to the two methods, self regulated scaffolding and integrated data interpretation, conflicting throughout the inquiry process; Jong and Lazonder’s findings may also have been related to the students they studied. For example, students with attention deficit disorders may struggle to stay focused when too many supports are working simultaneously. In comparison, some students who struggle to grasp concepts and processes in a singular topic may thrive off additional support. Perhaps, to better understand the consequences and successes of using a variety of methods, we first need to better understand which methods work well together, and when. By researching which methods are successful when used simultaneously, we can better equip our students for success instead of overwhelming them with conflicting methods. Whether teachers conducting inquiry based learning choose to use multiple guided discovery principles or few principles, it is important when planning to keep this in mind, “you (the student) don’t get used to the teacher giving you the answer, you get to find the answer by yourself” (Baldock and Murphrey, p. 240, 2020). This quote defines the fun students find throughout this style of learning. In their article, “Secondary Students’ Perceptions of Inquiry-based Learning in the Agriculture Classroom”, Balock and Murphrey quote a student who believes inquiry based and guided discovery learning “allows everyone to learn the same thing, but in different ways” (p. 240, 2020). These students who find joy and engagement from this teaching style prove to teachers the importance of stepping back from the methods and theories to focus on creating a lesson which allows the students to inquire and discover then implementing methods in afterward which will work to support the students on their journey. 

The guided discovery principle in multimedia learning is an approach that will positively impact each student’s learning. This method incorporates various levels of guidance into discovery based situations and allows students to learn information deeply. This chapter makes it evident that in order for students to learn information effectively, they need to be engaged in their learning process. The guided discovery method allows for this as it enables educators to provide their students with various types/degrees of guidance depending on their specific learning needs. Using this method in the future will benefit each child. Being aware of various methods available and trying various methods for different students allows this method to incorporate the universal design for learning and allow deep learning. Using these methods independently as well as incorporating various strategies together will prove to be beneficial in our future teaching careers. This method is adaptable for each student and can therefore lead to deep thinking, learning and individualized success for each learner because “people learn better when guidance is incorporated into discovery-based multimedia environments” (Mayer, 2014, p.7). 

References

Baldock, K., & Pesl Murphrey, T. (2020). Secondary Students’ Perceptions of Inquiry-based Learning in the Agriculture Classroom. Journal of Agricultural Education

De Jong, T., & Lazonder, A. (2014). The Guided Discovery Learning Principle in Multimedia Learning. In R. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 371-390). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139547369.019

Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139547369

Pwalshy. (2019, March 25). Discovery Learning – Bruner [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1MTybVmF5Y

Schwartz, A. (2017, June 5). CI149 – Guided Discovery Model. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nm2Uz7bELsw

 

Epic! Rationale

The multimedia application that we have chosen is Epic! Epic is a digital reading application that is tailored to children under the age of 12 to use on a tablet or computer. Educators can access Epic for free, and then gain an “access code” to share it with their students. On this app readers can track their reading progress, and since Epic is compatible with Google Classroom, this progress can be shared with the child’s teacher. Classrooms will need individual tablets or computers in order to use this app, but in our experience, we have noticed that most schools offer iPads or tablets that students can borrow.

We have chosen this app because it is a resource we all believe that we would like to use in our future teaching practice. Compared to the other apps our group reviewed, we decided that Epic has the most student and teacher friendly features, and this makes it more applicable in a classroom setting. We also thought that the layout of Epic was unique, and provided teachers and students with a lot of valuable resources. Furthermore, there are many fantastic reviews about Epic from parents and educators who use this app. Many of these reviews stated that the titles on Epic are popular, teachers can manage student’s profiles, encourages students to engage in reading activities, and many more. Another exciting feature Epic offers is “10 Creative Ways to use Epic! in the Classroom”. This list has many examples that we can definitely imagine incorporating into various lessons.

Overall, we have chosen Epic because of its user-friendly approach and we believe it is a valuable resource that follows many of the multimedia learning principles. We hope that by researching and learning more about Epic, it will help us feel more confident using this application in our future classrooms.

Evaluation of Interactive Multimedia Learning Application (individual

I have chosen to evaluate the Khan Kids application. Many of the multimedia principles are present within this application which have led to reviews and many positive experiences from educators who have used this app for primary children. I found that the majority of the principles discussed were present within this application. Many of the principles that the Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia identifies as being effective for managing essential processing due to an increase in “the learner’s ability to understand main points of the multimedia presentation” (Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning). The app uses levels and various sections to fulfil the segmenting principle. The modality principle is effective within the Khan Kids application as all the tasks (etc.) are represented verbally with spoken text as well as represented graphically in an age appropriate manner (Mayer, 2014). The levels and sections available allow the teacher to accommodate for students and pre-teach essential components to allow the pertaining principle to be demonstrated within this application (Mayer, 2014). These principles allow for essential processing to occur as students play age appropriate games aimed at learning various essential skills.

There are also many principles present within this application that are useful for reducing extraneous processing in order to lead to the most effective learning being able to take place (Mayer, 2014). The signalling g principle, special continuity principle, temporal continuity principle, and the redundancy principle are all evident within the Khan Kids app. Highlighting essential words, having words and pictures close together, words spoken at the same time they are illustrated, and including narration all allow for extraneous processing to be reduced- and more effective learning to take place (Mayer, 2014). I found that the coherence principle, the principle stating that better learning takes place when extraneous material is excluded from multimedia lessons, was not followed completely. There was lots of extra sound effects and material that could be distracting- or engaging- for some students.

Fostering generative processing principles were present within the Khan Kids application. Specifically, the multimedia principle and the personalization principle. The multimedia principle, being the most relevant and important principle in my opinion, stating words and pictures are more effective than words alone was very evident within the application (Mayer, 2014). Because the app is designed for young children, this is necessary and of great importance for learning to take place. The personalization principle is another that is necessary for effective learning. This principle states that using a conversational style is more effective for learning than a formal style as engagement in conversation leads to more effective learning (Mayer, 2014).

The Khan Kids application is an effective multimedia application. It effectively uses nearly all of the principles for effectively using multimedia to aid learning. It is also very user friendly, can be used at home as well as at school. It can be used in whole class lessons, small groups, or individually in order to meet each student’s needs. The Khan Kids app is also fun, low pressure, and engaging for students, making it seem like play.

References

Anstey, L., & Watson, G. (2018, September 18). A Rubric for Evaluating E-Learning Tools in Higher Education. Educause Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2018/9/a-rubric-for-evaluating-e-learning-tools-in-higher-education

 

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Cognitive_Theory_of_Multimedia_Learning

 

Mayer, R. E. (2014). The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/10.1017/CBO9781139547369

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=5&v=g-sknUVq1mk&feature=emb_title

 

Principles of Multimedia Learning- Blog post 2

I have learned a lot in the short amount of time that I have been exposed to and actively exploring multimedia and interactive learning. I was quite nervous initially to begin to look at some of these ideas due to my lack of prior knowledge on technology. However, something that I found to be very interesting is how closely linked all the principles discussed in regards to multimedia learning to the ways we have been learning to teach throughout the duration of our education degrees.  This week I have come to see that because the principles are so closely related, using technology is not as foreign and scary of a concept for me to engage with anymore.

One principle, the collaboration principle, stating “People can learn better with collaborative online learning activities” (Mayer, 2014) is one principle that I strongly agree with. I have always believed from personal experiences that I learn better when I have others to share ideas and build on each other’s ideas with. Previously, I have thought of activities centered around technology to be individual based. That is not the case at all, and I am eager to learn more about ways to incorporate collaboration into multimedia and interactive learning throughout my practicum and other future teaching I engage in.

The self-explanation principle and the feedback principle are two more ideas that I was particular drawn to. The self-explanation principle states that “People learn better when they are encouraged to generate self-explanations during learning” (Mayer, 2014), whereas the feedback principle states that “People learn better from multimedia lessons when they receive explanative feedback on their performance” (Mayer, 2014). I found it interesting to see that a balance of the two needed to promote the most effective learning possible. This reminded me of my past playing and coaching sports. I agree that in situations where you are learning something new, it is of equal importance to gain feedback from others to identify areas where improvements can be made and to think individually and attempt new things independently in order to make progress. I believe the balance could be different for different individuals, so as a teacher identifying the students’ needs is something that may have to be learned.

These principles of multimedia learning, as well as others, are important not only in teaching multimedia and while incorporating technology, but in every area of teaching and learning. These principles are something that I will continuously look back on to ensure best practice while learning how to teach using multimedia.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Mayer, R. E. (2014). The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/10.1017/CBO9781139547369

Feedback for Sams blog #1

https://sharingsam599822185.wordpress.com

I really liked your simple description of what multimedia is- I thought it was simple enough for anyone to understand, yet insightful enough to explain the complexities of it. I agree with you that rich experiences are a very important aspect of interactive learning using multimedia. This resonated with me, as like many of us had said, I learn best when I am interested and engaged with the subject matter. For myself, stories and activities really help with this.

I personally have never been very interested in video games, so I did not realize the degree of which these games could be integrated into a learning environment to solidify and build on learning. I would really like to discuss this further with you so I could get more comfortable with some of these ideas!

I too wondered about the idea of having “too much” technology in the classroom. My concern is that the technology may become to focus of the lesson, rather than the content and big ideas. I am looking forward to discovering more about this.

Feedback for Taylors blog #1

http://tmwhittall.opened.c

I can relate to what you discussed about the importance of engaging students. I also think that multimedia is a great way to incorporate UDL into teaching and find a way to reach, relate to, and engage each student, all with different interests and experiences. I too am excited to learn ways to incorporate technology and multimedia into future teaching experiences.

I noticed that you were able to think back to your own experiences throughout school, and pick out ways in which various teachers were able to reach students in the class. I think that many students are similar to you, in their ability to learn better through stories because it is relevant to their own lives. I would like to hear more about ways in which you would suggest engaging students based on your own past experiences as it seems like you have many ideas. Something that I think is important as we move towards our future teaching careers is variety as this will help us to reach each student, so I agree with you that the importance of using multimedia in teaching of all ages is of great importance!

 

Feedback for Olivias blog #1

https://howtoliv.home.blog/

I completely agree with your uncertainty about taking this course online, I too am a hands-on learner and have already found this course to be different from other education courses I have taken in the past. So much of an emphasis is placed on the importance of relationships and connection building with teachers, peers and students in each education class I have taken so far. With the way things are going, and how teaching online and online practice are going to be part of many of our future teaching, I am also very excited to learn more about using technology and how connections can still be built using this medium.

Your experiences with interactive learning seem to have taught you many ways to engage students and you appear to have lots of ideas already, as you begin your teaching career!

One thing that really stuck out to me as I read your blog post was that you said that multimedia learning “enhances the learning process”. This is something I need to remember moving forward- to use technology as a tool to aid learning, rather than make the lesson focus on the technology.

Feedback for Kaylas blog #1

https://kaylakrug.wordpress.co

I really appreciated how throughout your blog you mentioned using multimedia to enhance learning. I agree with you that the learning that takes place in genuine, interactive learning experiences is huge. When I think back to my own learning throughout school, I definitely learned (and still remember) the thigs that I learned when I was engaged and interested.

I also find technology frustrating at times, so I too am curious about incorporating technology into interactive learning experiences in an effective and meaningful ways. I think that this course will be helpful in finding ways for us to find multiple ways to allow interactive learning to be an everyday experience. I think this is important, and really stuck out to me, because having a classroom where students are engaged with an interested in the content I am teaching is a goal of mine as well!

I am excited to talk to you more throughout this course about your experiences and ideas of how to incorporate multimedia and interactive learning into teaching!

 

Multimedia and Interactive Learning Blog Post

Using technology that is “in sync with how people learn” (Mayer, 2014) is what really resonated with me when I began to think about how historical uses of multimedia influence technology use today. As somebody who has never been naturally gifted or knowledgeable when it comes to technology, this idea was really powerful. I have found that when incorporating technology into assignments it has felt forced. I now realize that I was unknowingly using a technology centered approach. As I thought about these articles and video, I began to understand how technology could be used to aid learning in a more organic and useful way. Throughout the education program, one thing that has been repeatedly stressed is the importance of relationships and using a learner-centered approach in teaching. I had never heard this term used to relate to technology, however, until now. Non-digital technologies are used daily in a classroom setting in order to promote student learning, participation, and understanding of concepts, so by using technology with those goals in mind, students will be better able to relate to, and comprehend new information.

I have come to understand that students learn best when they are able to become engaged in their learning. When digital technologies are used with a learner-centered approach, it allows students to become actively engaged with their learning, similarly to how non-digital multimedia approaches historically allow for better results. This approach would allow opportunity for each student to find interest in a topic because it is adapted to promote learning because it is designed around how the human mind naturally works.

I have struggled with technology in the past because I have attempted to use it to “provide access to information” (Mayer, 2014), rather than to “aid human cognition” (Mayer, 2014).  I can think back to one experience in school when this was not the case. I did not realize at the time why all of a sudden, I liked using technology for an assignment, but it was because it was using a learner centered approach.

In high school, we did a book report as a podcast and the teacher gave feedback using the same format. I found this allowed for a really personalized approach which allowed for a lot of flexibility, and has been something I thought back on when lesson and unit planning in the education program. I now realize that there are ways other assignments could have been easily adapted to allow students to better relate to and understand the learning outcomes using a learner centered approach to technology. I am eager to learn more ways to use technology to inform and engage students.

 

 

 

References

Mayer, R. E. (2014). The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/10.1017/CBO9781139547369